On 16 July 1661, Stockholm banker Johan Palmstruch issued Europe’s first banknotes, transforming money from heavy metal into portable paper promises. It was brilliant until the bank ran out of copper reserves and collapsed three years later. Nearly a thousand years earlier, on the same date in 1054, Roman legates walked into Constantinople’s Hagia Sophia and placed a papal bull of excommunication on the altar, formally splitting Christianity into Catholic and Orthodox traditions over theological disputes that had simmered for centuries. In 2014, a helicopter crew spotted a football-pitch-sized crater in Siberia’s Yamal Peninsula, later explained as a methane explosion caused by thawing permafrost. And in 1994, Spanish fishermen boarded the French vessel La Gabrielle in the Bay of Biscay, towing her to port and sparking the Tuna War, a dispute over illegal drift nets that eventually helped reshape EU fisheries law. Four stories about trust, rupture, and the uncomfortable discovery that solid ground is negotiable.

• Introduction Clara poses the deceptively simple question: what is money? Not what it buys, but what it physically is. For most of history, the answer was metal you could bite and weigh. Then in 1661, a Swedish banker handed someone paper and said ‘trust me’.
• Europe’s First Banknotes On 16 July 1661, Johan Palmstruch’s Stockholms Banco issued Europe’s first banknotes to solve Sweden’s copper currency crisis. Copper coins were absurdly heavy, some weighing kilograms. Palmstruch’s paper kreditivsedlar were revolutionary, but he printed more than the bank’s reserves could honour. The bank collapsed in 1664, Palmstruch was convicted of fraud, yet the idea survived and became the foundation of modern finance.
• Listener Call to Action Clara invites listeners to follow the show and share it with curious friends.
• The East-West Schism On 16 July 1054, three Roman legates placed a papal bull of excommunication on the altar of Hagia Sophia during Saturday liturgy, targeting Patriarch Michael Cerularius. Theological disputes over the filioque, papal authority, and liturgical practices had festered for centuries. The formal excommunications marked the split between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. The mutual excommunications were lifted in 1965, but reunification remains elusive.
• The Yamal Crater On 16 July 2014, a helicopter crew spotted a football-pitch-sized crater in Siberia’s Yamal Peninsula. Scientists attributed it to methane explosions from thawing permafrost. As temperatures rise, trapped methane pockets build pressure and blow out the ground above. The discovery revealed a disturbing consequence of climate change: the ground itself becoming unstable.
• The Tuna War On 16 July 1994, Spanish fishermen boarded the French vessel La Gabrielle in the Bay of Biscay, towing the sinking ship to port. The incident escalated the long-running dispute over illegal French drift nets that caught protected dolphins. The confrontation became a diplomatic flashpoint and contributed to the EU’s eventual ban on large-scale drift netting by 2002.
• Conclusion Clara reflects on three pieces of paper that changed the world: a banknote that redefined value, a papal bull that split a church, and a discovery in the tundra reminding us that even the earth beneath our feet is fragile. History continually undermines human overconfidence.

• https://www.riksbank.se/en-gb/about-the-riksbank/history/
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/East-West-Schism
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720356047
• https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/18/mysterious-siberian-crater-gas-explosion
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholms_Banco
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banknote
• https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/church-history/article/abs/schism-of-1054-some-further-reflections/8B0F3F9C8E9F3F3F3F3F3F3F3F3F3F3F