By 1792, the United States was fractured by a growing political divide between Hamilton’s Federalist Party and Jefferson’s Republican Party. While the Federalists favored a strong central government and closer ties to Britain, Republicans championed state power, agricultural interests, and an alliance with France. This friction intensified as the French Revolution descended into chaos, forcing the U.S. to navigate a precarious stance of neutrality amidst European warfare. Domestic tensions reached a breaking point with Jay’s Treaty, a controversial agreement that prioritized British relations and sparked public outrage across the states. The situation was further complicated by Alexander Hamilton’s personal scandals and the retirement of George Washington, which left the nation’s future in the hands of John Adams. These events transformed American politics from a civil disagreement into a deeply personal and vindictive struggle for the country's identity.

The provided text examines the transitional period following the drafting of the U.S. Constitution, focusing on the challenges of ratification and the achievements of the First Federal Congress. Initial skepticism from the states regarding federal power led to the creation of the Federalist Papers to clarify the document and a promised Bill of Rights to secure essential liberties. Upon the government's formation in 1789, George Washington was unanimously elected president, intentionally utilizing pomp and ceremony to establish international prestige for the new office. This first legislative session was critical in "filling in the blanks" of the Constitution by passing the Judiciary Act, establishing the Northwest Ordinance, and managing revolutionary debt without immediate direct taxation. Ultimately, the source highlights a historical debate over whether this new system was a necessary stabilization of the nation or a strategic move by the wealthy elite to limit grassroots democracy.

In 1787, delegates met to replace the weak Articles of Confederation with a stronger national government. They established a bicameral legislature, an executive branch led by George Washington, and a judicial branch. Key compromises addressed representation and slavery.